调用 C 库

Note from Rich

Chapters 12 and 13 really need to be rewritten from scratch.

I've left them here — you can read them, but the formatting is screwy.

MiniGtk

While the structure of lablgtk outlined in Introduction to Gtk seems perhaps over-complex, it's worth considering exactly why the author chose two layers. To appreciate this, you really need to get your hands dirty and look at other ways that a Gtk wrapper might have been written.

To this end I played around with something I call MiniGtk, intended as a simple Gtk wrapper. All MiniGtk is capable of is opening a window with a label, but after writing MiniGtk I had renewed respect for the author of lablgtk!

MiniGtk is also a good tutorial for people who want to write OCaml bindings around their favorite C library. If you've ever tried to write bindings for Perl or Java, you'll find doing the same for OCaml is surprisingly easy, although you do have to worry a bit about the garbage collector.

Let's talk first about how MiniGtk is structured: rather than using a two layered approach as with lablgtk, I wanted to implement MiniGtk using a single (object-oriented) layer. This means that MiniGtk consists of a bunch of class definitions. Methods in those classes pretty much directly translate into calls to the C libgtk-1.2.so library.

I also wanted to rationalise the module naming scheme for Gtk. So there is exactly one top-level module called (surprise!) Gtk and all classes are inside this module. A test program looks like this:

let win = new Gtk.window ~title:"My window" ();;
let lbl = new Gtk.label ~text:"Hello" ();;
win#add lbl;;

let () =
  Gtk.main ()

I defined a single abstract type to cover all GtkObjects (and "subclasses" of this C structure). In the Gtk module you'll find this type definition:

type obj

As discussed in the last chapter, this defines an abstract type of which it is impossible to create any instances. In OCaml, at least. Certain C functions are going to create instances of this type. For instance, the function which creates new labels (ie. GtkLabel structures) is defined this way:

external gtk_label_new : string -> obj = "gtk_label_new_c"

This strange function definition defines an external function, one coming from C. The C function is called gtk_label_new_c, and it takes a string and returns one of our abstract obj types.

OCaml doesn't quite let you call any C function yet. You need to write a little C wrapper around the library's function to translate to and from OCaml's internal types and C types. gtk_label_new_c (note the additional _c) is my wrapper around the real Gtk C function called gtk_label_new. Here it is. I'll explain more about it later.

CAMLprim value
gtk_label_new_c (value str)
{
  CAMLparam1 (str);
  CAMLreturn (wrap (GTK_OBJECT (
    gtk_label_new (String_val (str)))));
 }

Before explaining this function further, I'm going to take a step back and look at the hierarchy of our Gtk classes. I've chosen to reflect the actual Gtk widget hierarchy as closely as possible. All Gtk widgets are derived from a virtual base class called GtkObject. In fact from this class is derived GtkWidget and the whole variety of Gtk widgets are derived from this. So we define our own GtkObject equivalent class like this (note that object is a reserved word in OCaml).

type obj

class virtual gtk_object (obj : obj) =
object (self)
  val obj = obj
  method obj = obj
end

type obj defines our abstract object type, and class gtk_object takes one of these "things" as a parameter to its constructor. Recall from above that this parameter is actually the C GtkObject structure (in fact it's a specially wrapped pointer to this structure).

You can't create gtk_object instances directly because it's a virtual class, but if you could you'd have to construct them like this: new gtk_object obj. What would you pass as that obj parameter? You'd pass the return value of, for instance, gtk_label_new (go back and have a look at how that external function was typed). This is shown below:

(* Example code, not really part of MiniGtk! *)
class label text =
  let obj = gtk_label_new text in
  object (self)
    inherit gtk_object obj
  end

Of course the real label class doesn't inherit directly from gtk_object as shown above, but in principle this is how it works.

Following the Gtk class hierarchy the only class derived directly from gtk_object is our widget class, defined like this:

external gtk_widget_show : obj -> unit = "gtk_widget_show_c"
external gtk_widget_show_all : obj -> unit = "gtk_widget_show_all_c"

class virtual widget ?show obj =
  object (self)
    inherit gtk_object obj
    method show = gtk_widget_show obj
    method show_all = gtk_widget_show_all obj
    initializer if show <> Some false then self#show
  end

This class is considerably more complex. Let's look at the initialization code first:

class virtual widget ?show obj =
  object (self)
    inherit gtk_object obj
    initializer
      if show <> Some false then self#show
  end

The initializer section may well be new to you. This is code which runs when an object is being created - the equivalent of a constructor in other languages. In this case we check the boolean optional show argument and unless the user specified it explicitly as false we automatically call the #show method. (All Gtk widgets need to be "shown" after being created unless you want a widget to be created but hidden).

The actual definition of the methods happens with the help of a couple of external functions. These are basically direct calls to the C library (well, in fact there's a tiny bit of wrapper code, but that's not functionally important).

method show = gtk_widget_show obj
method show_all = gtk_widget_show_all obj

Notice that we pass the underlying GtkObject to both C library calls. This makes sense because these functions are prototyped as void gtk_widget_show (GtkWidget *); in C (GtkWidget and GtkObject are safely used interchangeably in this context).

I want to describe the label class (the real one this time!), but in between widget and label is misc, a generic class which describes a large class of miscellaneous widgets. This class just adds padding and alignment around a widget such as a label. Here is its definition:

let may f x =
  match x with
  | None -> ()
  | Some x -> f x

external gtk_misc_set_alignment :
  obj -> float * float -> unit = "gtk_misc_set_alignment_c"
external gtk_misc_set_padding :
  obj -> int * int -> unit = "gtk_misc_set_padding_c"

class virtual misc ?alignment ?padding ?show obj =
  object (self)
    inherit widget ?show obj
    method set_alignment = gtk_misc_set_alignment obj
    method set_padding = gtk_misc_set_padding obj
    initializer
      may (gtk_misc_set_alignment obj) alignment;
      may (gtk_misc_set_padding obj) padding
  end

We start with a helper function called may : ('a -> unit) -> 'a option -> unit which invokes its first argument on the contents of its second unless the second argument is None. This trick (stolen from lablgtk of course) is very useful when dealing with optional arguments as we'll see.

The methods in misc should be straightforward. What is tricky is the initialization code. First notice that we take optional alignment and padding arguments to the constructor, and we pass the optional show and mandatory obj arguments directly up to widget. What do we do with the optional alignment and padding? The initializer uses these:

initializer
  may (gtk_misc_set_alignment obj) alignment;
  may (gtk_misc_set_padding obj) padding 

It's that tricky may function in action. If the user gave an alignment argument, then this will set the alignment on the object by calling gtk_misc_set_alignment obj the_alignment. But more commonly the user will omit the alignment argument, in which case alignment is None and this does nothing. (In effect we get Gtk's default alignment, whatever that is). A similar thing happens with the padding. Note there is a certain simplicity and elegance in the way this is done.

Now we can finally get to the label class, which is derived directly from misc:

external gtk_label_new :
    string -> obj  = "gtk_label_new_c"
external gtk_label_set_text :
    obj -> string -> unit = "gtk_label_set_text_c"
external gtk_label_set_justify :
    obj -> Justification.t -> unit = "gtk_label_set_justify_c"
external gtk_label_set_pattern :
    obj -> string -> unit = "gtk_label_set_pattern_c"
external gtk_label_set_line_wrap :
    obj -> bool -> unit = "gtk_label_set_line_wrap_c"

class label ~text
  ?justify ?pattern ?line_wrap ?alignment
  ?padding ?show () =
  let obj = gtk_label_new text in
  object (self)
    inherit misc ?alignment ?padding ?show obj
    method set_text = gtk_label_set_text obj
    method set_justify = gtk_label_set_justify obj
    method set_pattern = gtk_label_set_pattern obj
    method set_line_wrap = gtk_label_set_line_wrap obj
    initializer
      may (gtk_label_set_justify obj) justify;
      may (gtk_label_set_pattern obj) pattern;
      may (gtk_label_set_line_wrap obj) line_wrap
  end

Although this class is bigger than the ones we've looked at up til now, it's really more of the same idea, except that this class isn't virtual. You can create instances of this class which means it finally has to call gtk_..._new. This is the initialization code (we discussed this pattern above):

class label ~text ... () =
  let obj = gtk_label_new text in
  object (self)
    inherit misc ... obj
  end

(Pop quiz: what happens if we need to define a class which is both a base class from which other classes can be derived, and is also a non-virtual class of which the user should be allowed to create instances?)

Wrapping calls to C libraries

Now we'll look in more detail at actually wrapping up calls to C library functions. Here's a simple example:

/* external gtk_label_set_text :
     obj -> string -> unit
       = "gtk_label_set_text_c" */

CAMLprim value
gtk_label_set_text_c (value obj, value str)
{
  CAMLparam2 (obj, str);
  gtk_label_set_text (unwrap (GtkLabel, obj),
    String_val (str));
  CAMLreturn (Val_unit);
}

Comparing the OCaml prototype for the external function call (in the comment) with the definition of the function we can see two things:

• The C function that OCaml calls is named "gtk_label_set_text_c".
• Two arguments are passed (value obj and value str) and a unit is returned.

Values are OCaml's internal representation of all sorts of things from simple integers through to strings and even objects. I'm not going to go into any great detail about the value type because it is more than adequately covered in the OCaml manual. To use value you need to just know what macros are available to convert between a value and some C type. The macros look like this:

`String_val (val)`

Convert from a `value` which is known to be a string to a C string (ie. `char *`).

`Val_unit`

The OCaml unit `()` as a `value`.

`Int_val (val)`

boolean

Convert from a `value` which is known to be an integer to a C `int`.

`Val_int (i)`

Convert from a C integer `i` into an integer `value`.

`Bool_val (val)`

Convert from a `value` which is known to be a boolean to a C boolean (ie. an `int`).

`Val_bool (i)`

Convert from a C integer `i` into a boolean `value`.

You can guess the others or consult the manual. Note that there is no straightforward conversion from C char * to a value. This involves allocating memory, which is somewhat more complicated.

In gtk_label_set_text_c above, the external definition, plus strong typing and type inference, has already ensured that the arguments are of the correct type, so to convert value str to a C char * we called String_val (str).

The other parts of the function are a bit stranger. To ensure that the garbage collector "knows" that your C function is still using obj and str while the C function is running (remember that the garbage collector might be triggered within your C function by a number of events - a callback to OCaml or using one of OCaml's allocation functions), you need to frame the function to add code to tell the garbage collector about the "roots" that you're using. And tell the garbage collector when you finish using those roots too, of course. This is done by framing the function within CAMLparamN ... CAMLreturn. Hence:

CAMLparam2 (obj, str);
...
CAMLreturn (Val_unit); 

CAMLparam2 is a macro saying that you're using two value parameters. (There is another macro for annotating local value variables too). You need to use CAMLreturn instead of plain return which tells the GC you've finished with those roots. It might be instructive to examine what code is inlined when you write CAMLparam2 (obj, str). This is the generated code (with the author's version of OCaml, so it might vary between implementations slightly):

struct caml__roots_block *caml__frame
    = local_roots;
struct caml__roots_block caml__roots_obj;

caml__roots_obj.next = local_roots;
local_roots = &caml__roots_obj;
caml__roots_obj.nitems = 1;
caml__roots_obj.ntables = 2;
caml__roots_obj.tables [0] = &obj;
caml__roots_obj.tables [1] = &str; 

And for CAMLreturn (foo):

local_roots = caml__frame;
return (foo); 

If you follow the code closely you'll see that local_roots is obviously a linked list of caml__roots_block structures. One (or more) of these structures is pushed onto the linked list when we enter the function, and all of these are popped back off when we leave, thus restoring local_roots to its previous state when we leave the function. (If you remembered to call CAMLreturn instead of return of course - otherwise local_roots will end up pointing at uninitialised data on the stack with "hilarious" consequences).

Each caml__roots_block structure has space for up to five values (you can have multiple blocks, so this isn't a limitation). When the GC runs we can infer that it must walk through the linked list, starting at local_roots, and treat each value as a root for garbage collection purposes. The consequences of not declaring a value parameter or local value variable in this way would be that the garbage collector might treat that variable as unreachable memory and thus reclaim it while your function is running!

CAMLprim is a Windows-only thing and so we won't talk about it ...

Finally there is the mysterious unwrap macro. This is one I wrote myself, or rather, this is one I mostly copied from lablgtk. There are two related functions, called wrap and unwrap and as you might possibly have guessed, they wrap and unwrap GtkObjects in OCaml values. These functions establish the somewhat magical relationship between GtkObject and our opaque, mysterious obj type which we defined for OCaml (see the very first part of this chapter to remind yourself).

The problem is how do we wrap up (and hide) the C GtkObject structure in a way that we can pass it around as an opaque "thing" (obj) through our OCaml code, and hopefully pass it back later to a C function which can unwrap it and retrieve the same GtkObject back again?

In order for it to get passed to OCaml code at all, we must somehow convert it to a value. Luckily we can quite easily use the C API to create value blocks which the OCaml garbage collector won't examine too closely ......