【Day33 文献泛读】Conceptual metaphor in everyday language
阅读文献：
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Conceptual Metaphor in Everyday Language. the journal of philosophy, 77(8), 453-486. doi:10.2307/2025464
文献链接：
I. Concepts that we live by
1）隐喻在生活中无处不在，概念系统conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in natural.
2）概念系统可以通过语言来进行了解
一个例子：argument is war→The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing or experience in terms of another.→The metaphor is not merely in the words we use-it is in our very concept of an argument.
II. The systematicity of mataphorical concepts
Since metaphorical expressions in our language are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of metaphorical concepts.
一个例子：time is money→in our culture we act as if time is a limited resource and a valuable commodity, at the same time, money is also limited resource and a valuable commodity, so we treat time like money→"entailment relationships" between the metaphors
III. Metaphorical systematicity: highlighting and hiding
The very systematicity that allows us to comprehend one aspect of a concept in terms of another will necessarily hide other aspects of the concept.
IV. Types of metaphor: structural, orientational, physical
1) structural metaphor: one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another;
2) physical metaphor: involves the projection of entity or substance status upon something that does not have that status inherently.
3) orientational metaphor: organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another and mostly has to do with spatial orientation like up-down, front-back and in-out, etc.
① the orientational metaphors can vary from culture to culture. For example, some cultures orient the future in front of us; others orient it in back.
② foreseeable future events are up (and ahead).
V. Metaphor and cultural coherence
The most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in the culture.
VI. An apparent metaphorical contradiction
English appears to have two contradictory organizations of time. In the first the future is in front and the past behind but in the second the future is behind and the past is in front.
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X. How is our conceptual system grounded?
1) most of our normal conceptual system is metaphorically structured; that is, most concepts are partially understood in terms of other concepts.
2) grounding metaphor is that we typically conceptualize the nonphysical in terms of the physical.
“人类的概念系统是围绕着很小一套的经验性概念——即直接来自我们的经验和用经验性词汇来描述的概念而形成的。这些基本的经验性概念包括一套基础的空间关系（如，上/下，前/后）、一套物理的本体论概念（如，实体、容器）和一套基本的经验和行为（如，吃，移动）。” 引自【Day29 文献泛读】时间隐喻研究述评 以及【Day24 文献精读】Metaphoric structuring: understanding time through spatial metaphors
这两篇文献中都对本文的观点做了概括介绍，可结合阅读。
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Conclusion:
1) Metaphorical concepts provide ways of understanding one kind of experience in terms of another kind of experience.
2) Typically this involves understanding less concrete experiences in terms of more concrete and more highly structured experiences. → space and time
4）This permits cross-cultural differences in conceptual systems: different cultures have different ways of comprehending experience via conceptual metaphor. Such differences will typically be reflected in linguistic differences.
一点思考：
本文提出了人们会使用较具象的经验（如空间）来对不具象经验（时间）进行隐喻的观点。